Bonehouse and Birdhouse: Birds That Nest in Human Skulls

Guest post by Thomas J. Farrow

The English term ‘bonehouse’, referring to an ossuary or charnel where large quantities of exhumed skeletal remains are stacked and displayed, derives from the Anglo-Saxon ‘beinhaus’. In its original use, this word referred to the human body rather than any structure as the house of bones. With the bones of the living inhabiting bodies and the bones of the dead inhabiting charnel houses, distinctions between life and death remain clear and accommodated. However, the emergence of animal life within the bones of the dead offers one further twist, repurposing bones as houses in and of themselves.

Reports of birds nesting in human skulls were surprisingly common in the 19th and early 20th centuries, attracting the attention of Victorian ornithologists and curiosity-seekers alike. Numerous reports survive through popular books and magazines of the period, including wrens nesting in a skull left outside to whiten by an anatomy student (Blanchan 1907), as well as one uncovered during building works at Hockwold Hall, Norfolk, during the 1870s (Chilvers 1877). Following its discovery, the Hockwold skull was hung from a nail on a potting shed wall by a local man, who was later surprised to find that a wren seen flying in and out of it had laid four or five eggs within.

Also in Norfolk, earlier in the century, birds were found nesting in the exposed skeletal remains of a local murderer. Following execution, the body was left to rot in a gibbet suspended outside the village of Wereham, serving as a grizzly warning to others who might threaten local lives. Around five years later, in 1810 or thereabouts, a child climbed the scaffold and discovered several blue-tits living within the skull (Stevenson 1876).

Though the Wereham gibbet is no longer extant, the surviving Rye gibbet shows how a skull would be retained. (Postcard. Author’s collection.)

Further accounts pepper books both historic and recent. When a Saxon cemetery was excavated at Saffron Walden during the 1870s, a Redstart raised four children in the skull of an exposed skeleton (Travis 1876). More recently, in an expedition to Cape Clear Island, Ireland, the ornithologist Ronald M. Lockley discovered a robin’s nest inside a skull within a ruined chapel, which had presumably tumbled from an old stone grave within the walls (Lockley 1983).

FIG 2: Illustration of a bird’s nest in a human skull, c.1906.

Skulls do not form the only morbid homes of nesting birds, with the Chinese Hoopoe, or coffin-bird, so named on account of its habit of nesting in caskets which were frequently left above-ground in 19th century China. Furthermore, the Arctic-dwelling Snow Bunting has been rumoured to seek shelter in the chest cavities of those unfortunate enough to die on the tundra (Dixon 1902). While nooks and crannies in modern cemeteries also provide helpful shelter in mortuary environments (Smith/Minor 2019), these nesting sites are not driven by any macabre mechanism. Rather, they express the versatile ability of birds to seek shelter wherever it might be conveniently found.

Birds nesting in locations as mundane as flowerpots and old boots (Kearton 1895), through to desiccated animal carcasses, including those of other birds (Armstrong 1955), demonstrate the indifferent resourcefulness of our feathered friends. It is therefore unsurprising that when skulls of the dead have been left exposed to the elements, they have occasionally provided shelter in much the same way as any other convenient object might. As charnels and ossuaries have historically accommodated large quantities of such remains, from time to time they have offered several such convenient homes for nesting birds.
Within England, two charnel collections remain extant. The first of these, at St. Leonard’s Church in Hythe, Kent, houses hundreds of skulls including one which contains a bird’s nest. The nest is rumoured to have been built in the mid-20th century after the church’s windows were shattered by a bomb which fell nearby in the Second World War, allowing birds to enter the structure (Caroline 2015).

FIG 3: The bird’s nest skull in St. Leonard’s, Hythe.

England’s second accessible charnel collection is located in the crypt of Holy Trinity Church in Rothwell, Northamptonshire. Newspapers in 1912 reported the discovery a nest in a skull there, which was believed to have been made by a bird who snuck into the crypt through a hole in a ventilator (Northampton Mercury 12.7.12). However, a lack of references in more recent sources suggest that the nest has not survived to the present day.
In Austria, the ossuary of Filialkirche St. Michael in der Wachau contains the remains of local people as well as soldiers who died during the 1805 Battle of Dürenstein (Engelbrecht). Several skulls bear bullet holes attesting death by conflict, while one with a large portion missing from its vault is displayed side-on to reveal the bird’s nest that it contains.

FIG 4: Nest skull at the Filialkirche St. Michael in der Wachau.

Further examples exist in the Breton region of North-Western France, where ossuaries were common until hygienic and cultural changes in the 19th and 20th centuries led to most of them being emptied. The ossuary of l’Église Saint-Grégoire in Lanrivain is one where bones still remain, with one skull there accommodating a nest.

FIG 5: Nest skull in Lanrivain Ossuary, Brittany.

A further example with a difference can be found in the ossuary of l’Église Saint-Fiacre. Within Breton ossuary practices, skulls were frequently retained separately from other remains in biographically inscribed boxes which recorded details of the deceased such as names and dates alongside invocations of prayer (Coughlin 2016). Boxes possessed viewing apertures which exposed the remains, as well as pitched roofs which led to 19th century travellers describing them as resembling dog kennels. However, one at Saint-Fiacre is decidedly distant from these canine comparisons, having been adopted and transformed into the uncanniest of birdhouses.

Ossuary in Saint-Fiacre. Source: Photos 2 Brehiz.

Birds are not the only animals to have found happy homes among charnel remains. In her book ‘A Tour of the Bones’, Denise Inge noted a mouse living in the ossuary of Hallstatt, Austria. More recently, rat bones in the ossuary of Gdańsk, Poland, have been used to shed new light on the dispersal of plague in medieval Europe (Morozova et al 2020). Plants as well as animals have their own established charnel histories too, with moss removed from human skulls finding historic employment within folk medicine as a cure for conditions of the head such as seizures and nosebleeds (Gerard 1636).

Fig 7: Medical moss on a human skull in the late 17th century.

While cemeteries have attracted increased attention in recent times as urban green spaces which accommodate and facilitate nature within settlements (Quinton/Duinker 2018), the study of charnel houses as ecosystems remains a further promising project which is yet to be conducted.

As most instances of birds nesting in ossuary skulls which have been described here were discovered accidentally during the course of broader research, it is inevitable that the present list remains incomplete. It is hoped that by bringing such examples together in one place, this strange phenomenon might receive recognition for the curiosity that it is, and that more instances might be noticed and added to the list. While it is widely seen that life often finds compelling ways to perpetuate among environments of the dead, nesting birds in ossuary skulls provide a particularly uncanny example – from bodies as the houses of bones, to bones as the houses of bodies.

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Thomas J. Farrow (mailTwitter) holds an MA in the Archaeology of Death and Memory from the University of Chester, UK. A previous article on the history of charnelling in England may be found here (Farrow 2020), while a paper addressing folk medical and magical uses of skull moss and ossuary remains is forthcoming in the Spring 2021 issue of The Enquiring Eye

Links, Curiosities & Mixed Wonders – 16

The wonderful photo above shows a group of Irish artists from the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin, including Margaret Clarke and Estella Solomons (via BiblioCuriosa).
And let’s start with the usual firing of links and oddities!

  • This is the oldest diving suit in the world. It is on exhibit in the Raahe museum in Finland, and dates back to the eighteenth century. It was used for short walks under water, to repair the keels of ships. Now, instead, “it dives into your nightmares” (as Stefano Castelli put it).
  • Rediscovered masterpieces: the Christian comic books of the seventies in which sinners are redeemed by the evangelizing heroes. “The Cross is mightier than the switchblade!” (Thanks, Gigio!)

  • On the facade of the Cologne Town Hall there is a statue of Bishop Konrad von Hochstaden. The severity of his ecclesiastical figure is barely surprising; it’s what’s under the pedestal that leaves you stunned.

The figure engaged in an obscene autofellatio is to be reconnected to the classic medieval marginalia, which often included grotesque and bizarre situations placed “in the margin” of the main work — which could be a book, a fresco, a painting or, as in this case, a sculptural complex.
Given that such figures appear on a good number of churches, mainly in France, Spain and Germany, there has been much speculation as to what their purpose and meaning might have been: these were not just echoes of pagan fertility symbols, but complex allegories of salvation, as this book explains (and if you read French, there’s another good one exclusively dedicated to Brittany). Beyond all conjectures, it is clear that the distinction between the sacred and the profane in the Middle Ages was not as clear and unambiguous as we would be led to believe.

  • Let’s remain in the Middle Ages. When in 1004 the niece of the Byzantine emperor dared to use a fork for the first time at table, she caused a ruckus and the act was condemned by the clergy as blasphemous. (No doubt the noblewoman had offended the Almighty, since He later made her die of plague.)
  • Also dead, for 3230 years, but with all the necessary papers: here is the Egyptian passport issued in 1974 for the mummy of Ramesses II, so that he could fly to Paris without a hitch at the check-in. [EDIT: this is actually an amusing fake, as Gabriel pointed out in the comments]

  • Man, I hate it when I order a simple cappuccino, but the bartender just has to show off.
  • Alex Eckman-Lawn adds disturbing and concrete “layers” to the human face. (Thanks, Anastasia!)
  • Another artist, Arngrímur Sigurðsson, illustrated several traditional figures of Icelandic folklore in a book called Duldýrasafnið, which translated means more or less “The Museum of Hidden Beings”. The volume is practically unobtainable online, but you can see many evocative paintings on the official website and especially in this great article. (Thanks, Luca!)
  • Forget Formula One! Here’s the ultimate racing competition!

  • If you love videogames and hate Mondays (sorry, I meant capitalism), do not miss this piece by Mariano Tomatis (Italian only).
  • Remember my old post on death masks? Pia Interlandi is an artist who still makes them today.
  • And finally, let’s dive into the weird side of porn for some videos of beautiful girls stuck in super glue — well, ok, they pretend to be. You can find dozens of them, and for a good reason: this is a peculiar immobilization fetishism (as this short article perfectly summarizes) combining classic female foot worship, the lusciousness of glue (huh?), and a little sadistic excitement in seeing the victim’s useless attempts to free herself. The big plus is it doesn’t violate YouTube adult content guidelines.

Links, curiosities & mixed wonders – 8

Here we are for a new edition of LC&MW, the perfect column to dawdle and amaze yourself at the beach!
(It is also perfect for me to relax a bit while writing the new book for the BB Collection.) (Speaking of which, until Septembre 15 you can get 20% discount if you buy all 4 books in one bundle — just insert the coupon BUNDLE4 at check out. Comes with a free Bizzarro Bazar Shopper.) (Oh, I almost forgot, the above chameleon is a hand, painted by great Guido Daniele, whose job is to… well, paint hands.)
Alright, let’s begin!

  • In Mexico City, at the Templo Mayor, archeologists finally found one of the legendary Aztech “towers of skulls” that once terrorized the Spanish conquistadores. These racks (called tzompantli) were used to exhibit the remains of warriors who valliantly died in battle, or enemies and war prisoners: they were descibed in many codices and travel diearies. The newly-discovered “tower” could well be the famed Huey Tzompantli, the biggest of them all, an impressing rack that could hold up to 60.000 heads, according to calculations (just imagine the nightmarish view).
    On this new site 650 skulls have been found, but the number is bound to increase as the excavation proceeds. But there’s a mystery: the experts expected to find the remains, as we’ve said, of oung warriors. Until now, they have encountered an unexplicable high rate of women and children — something that left everyone a bit confused. Maybe we have yet to fully understand the true function of the tzompantli?
  • One more archeological mystery: in Peru, some 200km away from the more famous Nazca lines, there is this sort of candelabra carved into the mountain rock. The geoglyph is 181 meters high, can be seen from the water, and nobody knows exactly what it is.

  • During the night on August 21, 1986, in a valley in the north-west province of Cameroon, more than 1700 people and 3500 cattle animals suddenly died in their sleep. What happened?
    Nearby lake Nyos, which the locals believed was haunted by spirits, was responsible for the disaster.
    On the bottom of lake Nyos, active volcanic magma naturally forms a layer of water with a very high CO2 concentration. Recent rainfalls had facilitated the so-called “lake overturn” (or limnic eruption): the lower layer had abruptly shifted to the surface, freeing an immense, invisible carbon dioxide cloud, as big as 80 million cubic meters, which in a few minutes suffocated almost all living beings in the valley. [Discovered via Oddly Historical]

If you find yourself nearby, don’t be afraid to breathe. Today siphons bring water from the bottom to the surface of the lake, so as to free the CO2 gradually and constantly.

  • Ok — what the heck is a swimsuit ad (by Italian firm Tezenis) doing on Bizzarro Bazar?
    Look again. That neck, folks.
    Photoshopping going wrong? Maybe, but I like to think that this pretty girl is actually the successor of great Martin Joe Laurello, star of the freakshow with Ringlin Bros, Ripley’s Believe It Or Not, Barnum & Bailey and other travelling shows.
    Here you can see him in action, together with fellow performer Bendyman.

  • The latest issue of Godfrey’s Almanack (an installation by the creator of the wonderful Thinker’s Garden) is devoted to the sea, to ancient navigation, to sea monsters. And it is delightful.
  • Say what you wish about Catherine The Great, but she surely had a certain taste for furniture.
  • Meanwhile in Kenya there’s a lawyer who (for the second time!) is trying to sue Israel and us Italians for killing Jesus Christ. That should teach us a lesson. You can murder, plunder and destroy undisturbed for centuries, but never mess with somebody who has connections at the top.
    P.S. An advise for Greek friends: you may be next, start hiding all traces of hemlock.
  • On this website (click on the first picture) you can take a 360° tour through the crytpt of Saint Casimir, Krakow, among open caskets and exposed mummies.

  • The above pic shows one of the casts of Pompeii victims, and it has recently gone viral after a user speculated ironically that the man might have died in the midst of an act of onanism. You can figure out the rest: users making trivial jokes, others deploring the lack of respect for the dead… Now, now, children.
  • If you’re on vacation in Souht East Asia, and you’re thinking about purchasing a bottle of snake wine… well, think again. The practice is quite cruel to begin with, and secondly, there have been reports of snakes waking up after spending months in alcohol, and sending whoever opened the bottle to the hospital or to the grave.

  • From July 21 to 24 I will be at the University of Winchester for the conference organised by Death & The Maiden, a beautiful blog exploring the relationship between women and death, to which I had the pleasure of contributing once or twice. The event looks awesome: panels aside, there will be seminars and workshops (from shroud embroidery to Victorian hairwork techniques), guided tours to local cemeteries, concerts, art performances and film screenings.
    I am bringing my talk Saints, Mothers & Aphrodites, which I hope I will be able to take on tour throughout Italy in autumn.

That’s all for now, see you next time!

Visitors From The Future

This article was originally published on #ILLUSTRATI n. 42, Visitors.

If we had the opportunity to communicate through time with humans of year 8113, would we be able to understand each other?
Supposing that every trace of our current civilisation had been erased, how could we explain our present to these remote descendants, these true aliens?

In 1936 this question arose in the mind of Dr. Thornwell Jacobs, the then director of the Oglethorpe University in Georgia, and lead to his decision to create a compendium of the human knowledge acquired by that time. What’s more, he thought it would have been better to show to the future men and women a wide range of significant objects that could convey a clear idea of the customs and traditions of the XX century.
It wasn’t an easy matter. Let’s think about it: what object would you include in your virtual museum if you had to summarise the entire history of the human race?

With the help of Thomas K. Peters, photographer, film producer and inventor, Dr Jacobs spent three years building his collection. As time passed by, the list of objects got more and more impressive and it included some unexpected items, which clearly the two curators reckoned that the humans of the Ninth millennium needed to see.

Among others, the collection contained 600.000 pages of text on microfilm, 200 narrative books, drawings of the greatest human inventions, a list of sports and hobbies which were fashionable during the past century, film showing historical events and audio recordings of the speeches of Hitler, Mussolini, Roosevelt and Stalin. And again: air shots of the main cities of the world, eyeglasses, dental plates, artificial limbs, navigation instruments, flower and plant seeds, clothes, typewriters… up to Budweiser beers, aluminium foil, Vaseline, nylons and plastic toys.

The two men then patiently sealed that huge pile of objects in hermetic recipients made of steel and glass, filling some capsules with nitrogen, in order to prevent the material oxidation. At last, they collocated the “museum”, exhibiting six millenniums of human knowledge, in a crypt under the Phoebe Hearst Memorial Hall. They did not forget to place a machinery called Language Integrator in front of the entrance: a tool that can teach how to speak English to the future historians, in case the Shakespeare language would not be at its bests any more.

The chamber was officially sealed on the 25th of May 1940. The plate affixed to the enormous stainless door specified that its insides did not contain any gold or jewelleries. Better safe than sorry.

This strange and restricted museum is still present and, if everything goes as planned, will remain untouched until year 8113, as indicated on the inscription. Yes, but why this specific year?
Dr. Jacobs considered the year 1936 as the bookmark on a hypothetical timeline, then added 6.177 years, corresponding to the amount of time passed from the establishment of the Egyptian Calendar (4241 B.C.).

The Oglethorpe University experience was regarded as the first “time capsule” of human history. The idea obtained a huge resonance and was followed by many other attempts of preserving the human knowledge and identity for future generations, by burying similar collections of memories and information.

Will the homo sapiens be still around in 8113? What will he look like? Would he be interested in discovering how we lived during the 40s of the XX century?
Beside the sci-fi (utopic or dystopic) visions of the future evoked by the time capsules, their charm resides in what they can tell about the past. An optimistic time, permeated by a blind trust in the human progress and still unscratched by the Second world war disaster, the holocausts and the nuclear horrors, an era unaware of the countless tragedies to come. A time when it was still possible to fiercely believe that future generations would have looked up to us with respect and curiosity.

Nowadays it is impossible to conceive in human terms such a distant future. The technology in our hands is already transforming us, our species, in ways that were unthinkable just a few decades ago. Our impact on the ecological and social system has already reached unprecedented levels.
Therefore, should we picture a “visitor” from year 8113 anyway… it is reasonable to presume that looking at us, his long-lost ancestors, he would shiver in disgust.

(Thanks, Masdeca!)

Mors pretiosa

Mors Pretiosa

Here comes the third volume in the Bizzarro Bazar Collection, Mors pretiosa – Italian religious ossuaries, already on pre-sale at the Logos bookshop.

This book, closing an ideal trilogy about those Italian sacred spaces where a direct contact with the dead is still possible, explores three exceptional locations: the Capuchin Crypt in Via Veneto, Rome, the hypogeum of Santa Maria dell’Orazione e Morte in via Giulia, also in Rome, and the chapel of San Bernardino alle Ossa in Milan.
Our journey through these three wonderful examples of decorated charnel houses, confronts us with a question that might seems almost outrageous today: can death possess a kind of peculiar, terrible beauty?

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From the press kit:

There is a crack, a crack in everything: that’s how the light gets in” sings Leonard Cohen, and this is ultimately the message brought by the bones that can be admired in this book; death is an eternal wound and at the same time a way out. A long way from the idea of cemetery, its atmosphere of peace and the emotions it instils, the term “ossuary” usually evokes an impression of gloomy coldness but the three places in this book are very different. The subjects in question are Italy’s most important religious ossuaries in which bones have been used with decorative ends: the Capuchin Crypt and Santa Maria dell’Orazione e Morte in Rome, and San Bernardino alle Ossa in Milan. Thick with the sensation of mortality and vanitas, these ossuaries are capable of performing a completely unexpected role: on the one hand they embody the memento mori as an exhortation to trust in an afterlife for which the earthly life is a mere preparation and test, on the other they represent shining examples of macabre art. They are the suggestive and emotional expression – which is at the same time compassionate – of a “high” feeling: that of the transitory, of the inexorability of detachment and the hope of Resurrection. Decorated with the same bones they are charged with safeguarding, they pursue the Greek concept of kalokagathìa, namely to make the “good death” even aesthetically beautiful, disassembling the physical body to recompose it in pleasant and splendid arrangements and thereby transcend it. The clear and in-depth texts of the book set these places in the context of the fideistic attitudes of their time and Christian theological traditions whereas the images immerse us in these sacred places charged with fear and fascination. Page after page, the patterns of skulls and bones show us death in all of its splendour, they make it mirabilis, worthy of being admired.

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In the text are recounted some fascinating stories about these places, from sacred representations in which human remains were used as props, to the misadventures of corpse seekers; but mainly we discover that these bone arabesques were much more than a mere attempt to impress the viewer, while in fact they represented a sort of death encyclopedia, which was meant to be read and interpreted as a real eschatological itinerary.

As usual, the book is extensively illustrated by Carlo Vannini‘s evocative photographs.

You can pre-order your copy of Mors Pretiosa on this page, and in the Bookshop you can purchase the previous two books in the series.

“La Veglia Eterna” è qui!

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Vi avevamo anticipato che il primo volume della Collana Bizzarro Bazar sarebbe stato disponibile nelle librerie a partire dal 15 ottobre. E infatti, per il comune e ignaro avventore sarà così. Ma per voi appassionati, che seguite regolarmente il blog, c’è una sorpresa!

In anteprima per tutti i lettori di Bizzarro Bazar, La Veglia Eterna (Logos Edizioni) è infatti già disponibile ordinando direttamente da questo link. Tutte le copie, precedentemente prenotate oppure ordinate a partire da questo momento, verranno spedite immediatamente.

Il libro è un’esplorazione delle Catacombe dei Cappuccini di Palermo che ripercorre la storia, la rilevanza antropologica, le tecniche di conservazione dei corpi e i curiosi aneddoti relativi a questa cripta cimiteriale, che ospita la più grande collezione di mummie naturali e artificiali del mondo. Ad accompagnarci e a guidare il nostro sguardo, mentre scendiamo gli scalini delle Catacombe, saranno le straordinarie fotografie di Carlo Vannini.

In chiusura, segnaliamo che lo splendido blog Salone del Lutto ha pubblicato proprio oggi questa recensione del nostro libro.

Buona lettura a tutti!

La veglia eterna

Le doppie esequie

Facendo riferimento al nostro articolo sulla meditazione orientale asubha, un lettore di Bizzarro Bazar ci ha segnalato un luogo particolarmente interessante: il cosiddetto cimitero delle Monache a Napoli, nella cripta del Castello Aragonese ad Ischia. In questo ipogeo fin dal 1575 le suore dell’ordine delle Clarisse deponevano le consorelle defunte su alcuni appositi sedili ricavati nella pietra, e dotati di un vaso. I cadaveri venivano quindi fatti “scolare” su questi seggioloni, e gli umori della decomposizione raccolti nel vaso sottostante. Lo scopo di questi sedili-scolatoi (chiamati anche cantarelle in area campana) era proprio quello di liberare ed essiccare le ossa tramite il deflusso dei liquidi cadaverici e talvolta raggiungere una parziale mummificazione, prima che i resti venissero effettivamente sepolti o conservati in un ossario; ma durante il disgustoso e macabro processo le monache spesso si recavano in meditazione e in preghiera proprio in quella cripta, per esperire da vicino in modo inequivocabile la caducità della carne e la vanità dell’esistenza terrena. Nonostante si trattasse comunque di un’epoca in cui il contatto con la morte era molto più quotidiano ed ordinario di quanto non lo sia oggi, ciò non toglie che essere rinchiuse in un sotterraneo ad “ammirare” la decadenza e i liquami mefitici della putrefazione per ore non dev’essere stato facile per le coraggiose monache.

Questa pratica della scolatura, per quanto possa sembrare strana, era diffusa un tempo in tutto il Mezzogiorno, e si ricollega alla peculiare tradizione della doppia sepoltura.
L’elaborazione del lutto, si sa, è uno dei momenti più codificati e importanti del vivere sociale. Noi tutti sappiamo cosa significhi perdere una persona cara, a livello personale, ma spesso dimentichiamo che le esequie sono un fatto eminentemente sociale, prima che individuale: si tratta di quello che in antropologia viene definito “rito di passaggio”, così come le nascite, le iniziazioni (che fanno uscire il ragazzo dall’infanzia per essere accettato nella comunità degli adulti) e i matrimoni. La morte è intesa come una rottura nello status sociale – un passaggio da una categoria ad un’altra. È l’assegnazione dell’ultima denominazione, il nostro cartellino identificativo finale, il “fu”.

Tra il momento della morte e quello della sepoltura c’è un periodo in cui il defunto è ancora in uno stato di passaggio; il funerale deve sancire la sua uscita dal mondo dei vivi e la sua nuova appartenenza a quello dei morti, nel quale potrà essere ricordato, pregato, e così via. Ma finché il morto resta in bilico fra i due mondi, è visto come pericoloso.

Così, per tracciare in maniera definitiva questo limite, nel Sud Italia e più specificamente a Napoli era in uso fino a pochi decenni fa la cosiddetta doppia sepoltura: il cadavere veniva seppellito per un periodo di tempo (da sei mesi a ben più di un anno) e in seguito riesumato.
“Dopo la riesumazione, la bara viene aperta dagli addetti e si controlla che le ossa siano completamente disseccate. In questo caso lo scheletro viene deposto su un tavolo apposito e i parenti, se vogliono, danno una mano a liberarlo dai brandelli di abiti e da eventuali residui della putrefazione; viene lavato prima con acqua e sapone e poi “disinfettato” con stracci imbevuti di alcool che i parenti, “per essere sicuri che la pulizia venga fatta accuratamente”, hanno pensato a procurare assieme alla naftalina con cui si cosparge il cadavere e al lenzuolo che verrà periodicamente cambiato e che fa da involucro al corpo del morto nella sua nuova condizione. Quando lo scheletro è pulito lo si può più facilmente trattare come un oggetto sacro e può quindi essere avviato alla sua nuova casa – che in genere si trova in un luogo lontano da quello della prima sepoltura – con un rito di passaggio che in scala ridotta […] riproduce quello del corteo funebre che accompagnò il morto alla tomba” (Robert Hertz, Contributo alla rappresentazione collettiva della morte, 1907).

Le doppie esequie servivano a sancire definitivamente il passaggio all’aldilà, e a porre fine al periodo di lutto. Con la seconda sepoltura il morto smetteva di restare in una pericolosa posizione liminale, era morto veramente, il suo passaggio era completo.

Scrive Francesco Pezzini: “la riesumazione dei resti e la loro definitiva collocazione sono in stretta relazione metaforica con il cammino dell’anima: la realtà fisica del cadavere è specchio significante della natura immateriale dell’anima; per questo motivo la salma deve presentarsi completamente scheletrizzata, asciutta, ripulita dalle parte molli. Quando la metamorfosi cadaverica, con il potere contaminante della morte significato dalle carni in disfacimento, si sarà risolta nella completa liberazione delle ossa, simbolo di purezza e durata, allora l’anima potrà dirsi definitivamente approdata nell’aldilà: solo allora l’impurità del cadavere prenderà la forma del ‹‹caro estinto›› e un morto pericoloso e contaminante i vivi si sarà trasformato in un’anima pacificata da pregare in altarini domestici . Viceversa, di defunti che riesumati presentassero ancora ampie porzioni di tessuti molli o ossa giudicate non sufficientemente nette, di questi si dovrà rimandare il rito di aggregazione al regno dei morti e presumere che si tratti di ‹‹male morti››, anime che ancora vagano inquiete su questo mondo e per la cui liberazione si può sperare reiterando il lavoro rituale che ne accompagni il transito. La riesumazione-ricognizione delle ossa è la fase conclusiva del lungo periodo di transizione del defunto: i suoi esiti non sono scontati e l’atmosfera è carica di ‹‹significati angoscianti››; ora si decide – in relazione allo stato in cui si presentano i suoi resti – se il morto è divenuto un’anima vicina a Dio, nella cui intercessione sarà possibile sperare e che accanto ai santi troverà spazio nell’universo sacro popolare”.

Gli scolatoi (non soltanto in forma di sedili, ma anche orizzontali o molto spesso verticali) sono inoltre collegati ad un’altra antica tradizione del meridione, ossia quella delle terresante. Situate comunemente sotto alcune chiese e talvolta negli stessi ipogei dove si trovavano gli scolatoi, erano delle vasche o delle stanze senza pavimentazione in cui venivano seppelliti i cadaveri, ricoperti di pochi centimetri di terra lasciata smossa. Era d’uso, fino al ‘700, officiare anche particolari messe nei luoghi che ospitavano le terresante, e non di rado i fedeli passavano le mani sulla terra in segno di contatto con il defunto.
Anche in questo caso le ossa venivano recuperate dopo un certo periodo di tempo: se una qualche mummificazione aveva avuto luogo, e le parti molli erano tutte o in parte incorrotte, le spoglie erano ritenute in un certo senso sacre o miracolose. Le terresante, nonostante si trovassero nei sotterranei all’interno delle chiese, erano comunemente gestite dalle confraternite laiche.

La cosa curiosa è che la doppia sepoltura non è appannaggio esclusivo del Sud Italia, ma si ritrova diffusa (con qualche ovvia variazione) ai quattro angoli del pianeta: in gran parte del Sud Est asiatico, nell’antico Messico (come dimostrano recenti ritrovamenti) e soprattutto in Oceania, dove è praticata tutt’oggi. Le modalità sono pressoché le medesime delle doppie esequie campane – sono i parenti stretti che hanno il compito di ripulire le ossa del caro estinto, e la seconda sepoltura avviene in luogo differente da quello della prima, proprio per marcare il carattere definitivo di questa inumazione.

Se volete approfondire ecco un eccellente studio di Francesco Pezzini sulle doppie esequie e la scolatura nell’Italia meridionale; un altro studio di A. Fornaciari, V. Giuffra e F. Pezzini si concentra più in particolare sui processi di tanametamorfosi e mummificazione in Sicilia. Buona parte delle fotografie contenute in questo articolo provengono da quest’ultima pubblicazione.

(Grazie, Massimiliano!)

La mummia più bella del mondo

All’interno delle suggestive Catacombe dei Cappuccini a Palermo, rinomate in tutto il mondo, sono conservate circa 8.000 salme mummificate. Fin dalla fine del Cinquecento, infatti, il convento cominciò ad imbalsamare ed esporre i cadaveri (principalmente provenienti da ceti abbienti, che potevano permettersi i costi di questa particolare sepoltura).

Forse queste immagini vi ricorderanno la Cripta dei Cappuccini a Roma, di cui abbiamo già parlato in un nostro articolo. La finalità filosofica di queste macabre esibizioni di cadaveri è in effetti la medesima: ricordare ai visitatori la transitorietà della vita, la decadenza della carne e l’effimero passaggio di ricchezze e onori. In una frase, memento mori – ricorda che morirai.

Le prime, antiche procedure prevedevano la “scolatura” delle salme, che venivano private degli organi interni e appese sopra a speciali vasche per un anno intero, in modo che perdessero ogni liquido e umore, e rinsecchissero. In seguito venivano lavate e cosparse con diversi olii essenziali e aceto, poi impagliate, rivestite ed esposte.

Ma fra le tante mummie contenute nelle Catacombe (così tante che nessuno le ha mai contate con precisione), ce n’è una che non cessa di stupire e commuovere chiunque si rechi in visita nel famoso santuario. Nella Cappella di Santa Rosalia, in fondo al primo corridoio, riposa “la mummia più bella del mondo”, quella di Rosalia Lombardo, una bambina di due anni morta nel 1920.

La piccola, morta per una broncopolmonite, dopo tutti questi anni sembra ancora che dorma, dolcemente adagiata nella sua minuscola bara. Il suo volto è sereno, la pelle appare morbida e distesa, e le sue lunghe ciocche di capelli biondi raccolte in un fiocco giallo le donano un’incredibile sensazione di vita. Com’è possibile che sia ancora così perfettamente conservata?

Il segreto della sua imbalsamazione è rimasto per quasi cento anni irrisolto, fino a quando nel 2009 un paleopatologo messinese, Dario Piombino Mascali, ha concluso una lunga e complessa ricerca per svelare il mistero. La minuziosa preparazione della salma di Rosalia è stata attribuita all’imbalsamatore palermitano Alfredo Salafia, che alla fine dell’Ottocento aveva messo a punto una sua procedura di conservazione dei tessuti mediante iniezione di composti chimici segretissimi. Salafia aveva restaurato la salma di Francesco Crispi (ormai in precarie condizioni), meritandosi il plauso della stampa e delle autorità ecclesiastiche; aveva perfino portato le sue ricerche in America, dove aveva dato dimostrazioni del suo metodo presso l’Eclectic Medical College di New York , riscuotendo un clamoroso successo.

Fino a pochissimi anni fa si pensava che Salafia avesse portato il segreto del suo portentoso processo di imbalsamazione nella tomba. Il suo lavoro sulla mummia di Rosalia Lombardo è tanto più sorprendente se pensiamo che alcune sofisticate radiografie hanno mostrato che anche gli organi interni, in particolare cervello, fegato e polmoni, sono rimasti perfettamente conservati. Piombino, nel suo studio delle carte di Salafia, ha finalmente scoperto la tanto ricercata formula:  si tratta di una sola iniezione intravascolare di formalina, glicerina, sali di zinco, alcool e acido salicilico, a cui Salafia spesso aggiungeva un trattamento di paraffina disciolta in etere per mantenere un aspetto vivo e rotondeggiante del volto. Anche Rosalia, infatti, ha il viso paffuto e l’epidermide apparentemente morbida come se non fosse trascorso un solo giorno dalla sua morte.

Salafia era già celebre quando nel 1920 effettuò l’imbalsamazione della piccola Rosalia e, come favore alla famiglia Lombardo, grazie alla sua influenza riuscì a far seppellire la bambina nelle Catacombe quando non era più permesso. Così ancora oggi possiamo ammirare Rosalia Lombardo, abbandonata al sonno che la culla da quasi un secolo: la “Bella Addormentata”, come è stata chiamata, è sicuramente una delle mummie più importanti e famose del ventesimo secolo.

E l’imbalsamatore? Dopo tanti anni passati a combattere i segni del disfacimento e della morte, senza ottenere mai una laurea in medicina, Alfredo Salafia si spense infine nel 1933. Nel 2000, allo spurgo della tomba, i familiari non vennero avvisati. Così, come ultima beffa, nessuno sa più dove siano finiti gli ultimi resti di quell’uomo straordinario che aveva dedicato la sua vita a preservare i corpi per l’eternità.

La Cripta dei Cappuccini

Se capitate a Roma, vi consigliamo di ritagliarvi un quarto d’ora per una visita indimenticabile. Proprio all’inizio di Via Veneto, la famosa strada delle celebrità di Roma, frequentata da signore ingioiellate, attrici glamour e ambasciatori internazionali, si trova la Chiesa di Santa Maria Immacolata, al cui interno è conservato uno dei santuari più impressionanti e, a nostro avviso, suggestivi d’Italia. Un luogo non soltanto consigliato a chi avverte il fascino e il gusto del macabro, ma anche a chi vuole passare qualche minuto di sincera meditazione e di confronto con se stesso e il proprio senso.

La Cripta dei Cappuccini era l’ossario in cui venivano conservati i resti dei frati, e contiene le ossa raccolte durante le periodiche riesumazioni dal 1528 fino al 1870. In questo esiguo spazio si è calcolato che siano conservati i resti di 3700-4000 frati cappuccini. Verso la metà del 1700, con interventi successivi, questo luogo di sepoltura, di preghiera e di riflessione venne trasformato in un’opera d’arte. Nel 1775 il Marchese De Sade lo visitò e ne lasciò una suggestiva descrizione.

La Cripta è suddivisa in 6 piccole cappelle adiacenti: la cripta della Resurrezione, la cappella per le messe, la cripta dei teschi, la cripta dei bacini, la cripta delle tibie e dei femori, e la cripta dei tre scheletri.

Le ossa adornano i muri, il soffitto e sono posizionate a creare fantasiose ed elaborate composizioni allegoriche che ricordano la caducità dell’esistenza e l’inesorabile fine che ci attende. Un memento mori di rara bellezza, nel quieto silenzio delle volte ricoperte di ossa e scheletri. Assieme alle ossa, sono conservati alcune salme mummificate vestite con il tipico saio, alcune in piedi, altre sdraiate in nicchie curvilinee.

Teschi affiancati a scapole che fanno loro da ali, lampadari formati con costole e altre ossa, baldacchini di bacini, pendagli di vertebre, rosoni formati da mandibole e ossi sacri… la vista si perde in questi ornamenti barocchi e macabri.

Notevole è l’ultima cappella, quella chiamata “dei tre scheletri”, che ci svela l’intimo senso dell’opera. Due scheletri di bambini (della famiglia Barberini) sorreggono con una mano un cranio alato. Uno scheletro sottile (la “principessa Barberini”) tiene in una mano una falce, e nell’altra una bilancia: segni rispettivamente della morte livellatrice, che miete tutti indistintamente come l’erba di un prato, e del giudizio divino dell’anima, che soppesa opere buone e cattive. Ma questo scheletro è inserito all’interno di una mandorla, segno di vita che rinasce. La morte, dunque, non è che il seme di nuova vita.

Una targa, infine, ci sorprende perché dona voce a tutti questi scheletri – pensavamo di essere noi ad osservare quelle centinaia di orbite vuote, ma forse è accaduto proprio il contrario. Incisa sulla targa, una frase semplice ma toccante: “Noi eravamo ciò che voi siete, e quello che noi siamo voi sarete”.