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Anatomy Lessons

The Corpse on Stage

Frontispiece of Vesalius’ Fabrica (1543).

Andreas Vesalius (of whom I have already written several times), was among the principal initiators of the anatomical discipline.
An aspect that is not often considered is the influence that the frontispiece of his seminal De Humani Corporis Fabrica has had on the history of art.

Vesalius was probably the first and certainly the most famous among medical scholars to be portrayed in the act of dissecting a corpse: on his part, this was obviously a calculated affront to the university practice of the time, in which anatomy was learned exclusively from books. Any lecture was just a lectio, in that it consisted in the slavish reading of the ancient Galenic texts, reputed to be infallible.
With that title page, a true hymn to empirical reconnaissance, Vesalius was instead affirming his revolutionary stance: he was saying that in order to understand how they worked, bodies had to be opened, and one had to look inside them.

Johannes Vesling, Syntagma Anatomicum (1647).

Giulio Cesare Casseri, Tabulae Anatomicae (1627, here from the Frankfurt edition, 1656)

Thus, after the initial resistance and controversy, the medical community embraced dissection as its main educational tool. And if until that moment Galen had been idolized, it didn’t take long for Vesalius to take his place, and it soon became a must for anatomists to have themselves portrayed on the title pages of their treatises, in the act of emulating their new master’s autopsies.

Anatomy lecture, School of Bartolomeo Passarotti (1529-1592)

Frontispiece commissioned by John Banister (ca. 1580)

Apart from some rare predecessors, such as the two sixteenth-century examples above, the theme of the “anatomy lesson” truly became a recurring artistic motif in the 17th century, particularly in the Dutch university context.
In group portraits, whose function was to immortalize the major anatomists of the time, it became fashionable to depict these luminaries in the act of dissecting a corpse.

Michiel Jansz van Miereveld, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer (1617)

However, the reference to the dissecting practice was not just realistic. It was above all a way to emphasize the authority and social status of the painted subjects: what is still evident in these pictures is the satisfaction of the anatomists in being portrayed in the middle of an act that impressed and fascinated ordinary people.

Nicolaes Eliaszoon Pickenoy, The Osteology Lesson of Dr. Sebastiaes Egbertsz (1619)

The dissections carried out in anatomical theaters were often real public shows (sometimes accompanied with a small chamber orchestra) in which the Doctor was the absolute protagonist.
It should also be remembered that the figure of the anatomist remained cloaked in an aura of mystery, more like a philosopher who owned some kind of esoteric knowledge rather than a simple physician. In fact an anatomist would not even perform surgical operations himself – that was a job for surgeons, or barbers; his role was to map the inside of the body, like a true explorer, and reveal its most hidden and inaccessible secrets.

Christiaen Coevershof, The Anatomy Lesson of Doctor Zacheus de Jager (1640)

Among all the anatomy lessons that punctuate the history of art, the most famous remain undoubtedly those painted by Rembrandt, which also constituted his first major engagement at the beginning of his career in Amsterdam. The Guild of Surgeons at the time used to commission this type of paintings to be displayed in the common room. Rembrandt painted one in 1632 and a second in 1656 (partially destroyed, only its central portion remains).

Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632)

Countless pages have been written about The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, as the painting is full of half-hidden details. The scene depicted here becomes theatrical, a space of dramatic action in which the group portrait is no longer static: each character is shown in a specific pose, turning his gaze in a precise direction. Thanks to an already wise use of light, Rembrandt exploits the corpse as a repoussoir, an element of attraction that suddenly pulls the viewer “inside” the painting. And the lifeless body seems to counterbalance the absolute protagonist of the picture, Dr. Tulp: slightly off-centered, he is so important that he deserves to have a light source of his own.
Perhaps the most ironic detail to us is that open book, on the right: it is easy to guess which text is consulted during the lectio. Now it is no longer Galen, but Vesalius who stands on the lectern.

Detail of the illuminated face of Dr. Tulp.

The umbra mortis, a shadow that falls on the eyes of the dead.

The navel of the corpse forms the “R” for Rembrandt.

Detail of the book.

Detail of tendons.

The way the dissection itself is portrayed in the picture has been discussed at length, as it seems implausible that an anatomical lesson could begin by exposing the arm tendons instead of performing the classic opening of the chest wall and evisceration. On the other hand, a renowned anatomist like Tulp would never have lowered himself to perform the dissection himself, but would have delegated an assistant; Rembrandt’s intent of staging the picture is evident. The same doubts of anatomical / historical unreliability have been advanced for the following anatomical lesson by Rembrandt, that of Dr. Deyman, in which the membranes of the brain may be incorrectly represented.

Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Deyman (1656)

But, apart from the artistic licenses he may have taken, Rembrandt’s own (pictorial) “lesson” made quite a lot of proselytes.

Cornelis De Man, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Cornelis Isaacz.’s Gravenzande (1681)

Jan van Neck, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Frederik Ruysch (1683)

Another curiosity is hidden in The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Frederck Ruysch by Jan van Neck. I have already written about Ruysch and his extraordinary preparations elsewhere: here I only remember that the figure that looks like a pageboy and exhibits a fetal skeleton, on the right of the picture, is none other than the daughter of the anatomist, Rachel Ruysch. She helped her father with dissections and anatomical preservations, also sewing lace and laces for his famous preparations. Upon reaching adulthood, Rachel set aside cadavers to become a popular floral painter.

Detail of Rachel Ruysch.

A century after the famous Tulp portrait, Cornelis Troost shows a completely different attitude to the subject.

Cornelis Troost, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Willem Roëll (1728)

De Raadt writes about this picture:

This art work belongs to the transition period that takes us from humanism to modernism […]. Judging by the lack of interest in the students, the enlightened anatomy does not generate wonder in its students. A measure of disdain. The characters are dressed like French aristocrats with their powdered wig affecting wealth and power.

Anon., William Cheselden gives an anatomical demonstration to six spectators (ca. 1730/1740)

In Tibout Regters‘ version of the theme (below), the corpse has even almost completely disappeared: only a dissected head is shown, on the right, and it seems nothing more than an accessory to carelessly show off; the professors’ cumbersome pomposity now dominates the scene.

Tibout Regters, Lezione di anatomia del Dottor Petrus Camper (1758)

The rationalism and materialism of the Enlightenment era gave way, in the 19th century, to an approach largely influenced by romantic literature, as proof that science is inevitably connected with the imagination of its time.

Of all disciplines, anatomy was most affected by this literary fascination, which was actually bi-directional. On one hand, gothic and romantic writers (the Scapigliati more than anybody) looked at anatomy as the perfect combination of morbid charm and icy science, a new style of “macabre positivism”; and for their part the anatomists became increasingly conscious of being considered decadent “heroes”, and medical texts of the time are often filled with poetic flourishes and obvious artistic ambitions.

Thomas Eakins, The Gross Clinic (1875)

Thomas Eakins, The Agnew Clinic (1889)

This tendency also affected the representation of anatomical lessons. The two paintings above, by the American artist Thomas Eakins, painted respectively in 1875 and 1889, are not strictly dissections because they actually show surgical operations. Yet the concept is the same: we see a luminary impressing with his surgical prowess the audience, crowded in the shadows. The use of light underlines the grandiose severity of these heroic figures, yet the intent is also to highlight the innovations they supported. Dr. Gross is shown in the act of treating an osteomyelitis of the femur with a conservative procedure – when an amputation would have been inevitable until a few years earlier; in the second picture, painted fourteen years after the first, we can recognize how the importance of infection prevention was beginning to be understood (the surgical theater is bright, clean, and the surgeons all wear a white coat).

Georges Chicotot, Professor Poirier verifying a dissection (1886)

A painting from 1886 by physician and artist Georges Chicotot is a mixture of raw realism and accents of “involuntary fantasy”. Here, there’s no public at all, and the anatomist is shown alone in his study; a corpse is hanging from the neck like a piece of meat, bones lie on the shelves and purple patches of blood smear the tablecloth and apron. It’s hard not to think of Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein.

Enrique Simonet Lombardo, Anatomy of the heart (1890)

But the 19th century, with its tension between romanticism and rationality, is all ideally enclosed in the Anatomy of the heart by the Spanish artist Enrique Simonet. Painted in 1890, it is the perfect summary of the dual soul of its century, since it is entirely played on opposites. Masculine and feminine, objectivity and subjectivity, life and death, youth and old age, but also the white complexion of the corpse in contrast with the black figure of the anatomist. Once again there is no audience here, this is a very intimate dimension. The professor, alone in an anonymous autopsy room, observes the heart he has just taken from the chest of the beautiful girl, as if he were contemplating a mystery. The heart, a favorite organ for the Romantics, is represented here completely out of metaphor, a concrete and bloody organ; yet it still seems to holds the secret of everything.

J. H. Lobley, Anatomy Lessons at St Dunstan’s (1919)

With the coming of the 20th century the topos of the anatomy lesson gradually faded away, and the “serious” depictions became increasingly scarce. Yet the trend did not disappear: it ended up contaminated by postmodern quotationism, when not turned into explicit parody. In particular it was Dr. Tulp who rose to the role of a true icon, becoming the protagonist – and sometimes the victim – of fanciful reinventions.

Édouard Manet, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, copy from Rembrandt (1856)

Gaston La Touche, Anatomy of love (19 ??)

Georges Léonnec, The Anatomy Lesson of Professor Cupid (1918)

Although Manet had revisited the famous painting in the Impressionist manner in 1856, La Touche had imagined an ironic Anatomy of love, and Léonnec parroted Rembrandt with his cupids, it’s actually in the last quarter of the 20th century that Tulp began to pop up almost everywhere, in comics, films and television.

Asterix and the Soothsayer (1973) Goscinny-Uderzo

Tulp (1993, dir: Stefano Bessoni)

One of the most interesting variations was realized by Scottish photographer Laurence Winram: commissioned by the Edinburgh Medical School and featuring contemporary women medical students, it was designed to celebrate the “Edinburgh Seven“, the first group of female students enrolled in a British university in 1869, who were allowed to study medicine but not to graduate.

Laurence Winram (2020)

With the advent of the internet the success of the famous Doctor spread more and more, as his figure began to be photoshopped and replicated to infinity.
A bit like what happened to Mona Lisa, disfigured by Duchamp’s mustache, Tulp has now become the reference point for anyone who’s into black, un-pc humor.

Tulp, Lego version.

Hillary White, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Bird (2010)

FvrMate, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicholaes Tulp, (2016)

HANGBoY, The Anatomy Lesson (2016)

Contemporary art increasingly uses the inside of the body as a subversive and ironic element. The fact that Tulp is still a “pop icon” on a global scale proves the enormous influence of Rembrandt’s painting; and of Vesalius who, with his frontispiece, started the motif of the anatomical lesson, thus leaving a deep mark in the history of visual arts.

This article is a spin-off of my previous post on the relationship between anatomy and surrealism.

Links, curiosities & mixed wonders – 6

Step right up! A new batch of weird news from around the world, amazing stories and curious facts to get wise with your friends! Guaranteed to break the ice at parties!

  • Have you seen those adorable and lovely fruit bats? How would you like to own a pet bat, making all those funny expressions as you feed him a piece of watermelon or banana?
    In this eye-opening article a bat expert explains all the reasons why keeping these mammals as domestic pets is actually a terrible idea.
    There are not just ethical reasons (you would practically ruin their existence) or economic reasons (keeping them healthy would cost you way more than you can imagine); the big surprise here is that, despite those charming OMG-it’s-so-cuuute little faces, bats — how should I put it — are not exactly good-mannered.
    As they hang upside down, they rub their own urine all over their body, in order to stink appropriately. They defecate constantly. And most of all, they engage in sex all the time — straight, homosexual, vaginal, oral and anal sex, you name it. If you keep them alone, males will engage in stubborn auto-fellatio. They will try and hump you, too.
    And if you still think ‘Well, now, how bad can that be’, let me remind you that we’re talking about this.
    Next time your friend posts a video of cuddly bats, go ahead and link this pic. You’re welcome.
  • Sex + animals, always good fun. Take for example the spider Latrodectus: after mating, the male voluntarily offers himself in sacrifice to be eaten by his female partner, to benefit their offspring. And he’s not the only animal to understand the evolutionary advantages of cannibalism.
  • From cannibals to zombies: the man picture below is Clairvius Narcisse. He is sitting on his own grave, from which he rose transformed into a real living dead.
    You can find his story on Wikipedia, in a famous Haitian etnology book, in the fantasy horror film Wes Craven adapted from it, and in this in-depth article.
  • Since we’re talking books, have you already invested your $3 for The Illustrati Archives 2012-2016? Thirty Bizzarro Bazar articles in kindle format, and the satisfaction of supporting this blog, keeping it free as it is and always will be. Ok, end of the commercial break.
  • Under a monastery in Rennes, France, more than 1.380 bodies have been found, dating from 14th to 18th Century. One of them belonged to noblewoman Louise de Quengo, Lady of Brefeillac; along with her corpse, in the casket, was found her husband’s heart, sealed in a lead lock box. The research on these burials, recently published, could revolutionize all we know about mummification during the Renaissance.

  • While we’re on the subject, here’s a great article on some of the least known mummies in Italy: the Mosampolo mummies (Italian language).
  • Regarding a part of the Italian patrimony that seldom comes under the spotlight, BBC Culture issued a good post on the Catacombs of Saint Gaudiosus in Naples, where frescoes show a sort of danse macabre but with an unsettling ‘twist’: the holes that can be seen where a figure’s face should be, originally harbored essicated heads and real skulls.

  • Now for a change of scenario. Imagine a sort of Blade Runner future: a huge billboard, the incredible size of 1 km², is orbiting around the Earth, brightening the night with its eletric colored lights, like a second moon, advertising some carbonated drink or the last shampoo. We managed to avoid all this for the time being, but that isn’t to say that someone hasn’t already thought of doing it. Here’s the Wiki page on space advertising.
  • Since we are talking about space, a wonderful piece The Coming Amnesia speculates about a future in which the galaxies will be so far from each other that they will no longer be visible through any kind of telescope. This means that the inhabitants of the future will think the only existing galaxy is their own, and will never come to theorize something like the Big Bang. But wait a second: what if something like that had already happened? What if some fundamental detail, essential to the understanding of the nature of cosmos, had already, forever disappeared, preventing us from seeing the whole picture?
  • To intuitively teach what counterpoint is, Berkeley programmer Stephen Malinowski creates graphics where distinct melodic lines have different colors. And even without knowing anything about music, the astounding complexity of a Bach organ fugue becomes suddenly clear:

  • In closing, I advise you to take 10 minutes off to immerse yourself in the fantastic and poetic atmosphere of Goutte d’Or, a French-Danish stop-motion short directed by Christophe Peladan. The director of this ironic story of undead pirates, well aware he cannot compete with Caribbean blockbusters, makes a virtue of necessity and allows himself some very French, risqué malice.

Gourmand e gourmet

(Articolo a cura del nostro guestblogger Pee Gee Daniel)

Che altro è l’ingordo se non un entusiasta della vita che pretenda di degustarla il più possibile attraverso le cavità orali?
Se il filosofo ambisce a comprendere l’universo attraverso il pensiero, il dandy grazie ai lussi sibaritici di cui si circonda, e il grande amatore giacendo con un’infinità di partner, il mangione eserciterà questa disposizione d’animo assimilando tutto il cibo che l’elasticità delle pareti intestinali gli permetta di ingurgitare.
I due campioni di quest’ultima inclinazione, che andremo qui di seguito a descrivere, sarebbero piaciuti a Rabelais: ben testimoniano infatti le prerogative che il mostruoso sviluppo della fase orale può assumere, tra quantità e qualità, tra il polifago e l’onnivoro, tra la fame e l’appetito.

artworks-000018238238-nfum0v-t500x500
Nonostante sia vissuto in tempi relativamente recenti (la sua breve vita si svolse infatti tra il 1772 e il 1798) di Tarrare non ci sono rimaste notizie biografiche inoppugnabili e tutto di questa figura tende a sconfinare nel leggendario. Unica certezza è la bulimia pantagruelica da cui era affetto.
Sembra che sin dalla più tenera età fosse capace di ingurgitare intere derrate di carne, tanto che la modesta famiglia d’origine si vide presto costretta a buttarlo fuori casa, intimandogli di provvedere da solo alla propria inestinguibile voracità. Tarrare partì dunque dalla natia Lione per esibirsi in tutta la Francia con compagnie di giro, presso cui rivestiva il ruolo di una sorta di geek ante litteram. Il suo numero consisteva nell’ingoiare qualunque cosa il pubblico gli porgesse: pietre, animali vivi e frutti interi.
Giunto a Parigi si arruolò nell’Esercito Rivoluzionario, tra le cui fila ben presto ci si accorse che le razioni militari non erano minimamente sufficienti a saziare quello stomaco senza fondo. Venne  ospedalizzato e fu allora che i medici per la prima volta ebbero modo di condurre alcuni test circa le sue potenzialità digestive. Il soggetto si dimostrò capace di divorare in una sola volta, e senza apparente sforzo, le portate di una mensa imbandita per 15 persone, una quantità di gatti, cagnolini, lucertole e serpenti vivi e, dulcis in fundo, un’intera anguilla, che butto giù senza masticare.
Avendo tra l’altro dato prova di poter ingoiare un’intera risma di fogli, “restituendoli” a fine giornata pressoché intonsi, il generale Beauharnais lo impiegò per il buon esito della guerra in corso contro i prussiani, obbligando Tarrare a ingoiare documenti della massima importanza che, custoditi nelle sue budella, egli avrebbe poi “depositato” oltre le linee nemiche. Intercettato dall’esercito tedesco, si ritrovò ancora tra le corsie di un nosocomio, dove stavolta l’equipe medica tentò di curare l’inusuale patologia tramite una terapia a base di laudano, pillole di tabacco, aceto di vino e uova sode, destinata comunque all’insuccesso. Tiranneggiato da languori sempre più incontenibili, Tarrare si spinse a sgranocchiare immondizie e scarti di fogna e fu fermato appena in tempo mentre cercava di bere sangue prelevato ad altri pazienti o di cibarsi dei cadaveri ricoverati nella morgue. Gli venne persino imputata la scomparsa di un infante di 14 mesi, avvenuta in sospetta concomitanza con il suo passaggio… Morì a Versailles in seguito a un violento accesso di dissenteria.
Particolare curioso è che, a dispetto di questa sua mania, aveva sempre conservato un peso corporeo nella media.

William Buckland, geologist, 1823.
Ben diverso fu invece l’approccio all’alimentazione di Sir William Buckland (1784-1856).
Eminente geologo presso l’università di Oxford (a lui si devono le prime descrizioni scientifiche di fossili di dinosauri), affiancava al ruolo accademico una passione a dir poco eccentrica, che lo rese non meno celebre.
A muovere Buckland era una curiosità scientifica, applicata al campo dietetico. La missione che Buckland si prefisse sin dalla giovinezza fu quella di assaggiare almeno un esemplare di ogni specie vivente. E in effetti, nel corso dei suoi settant’anni abbondanti di vita, ebbe modo di comporre un catalogo variegatissimo di bestie commestibili.
Durante questa carriera mangereccia degustò carne di vari animali domestici, proscimmie, primati, grossi felini (si narra di una famigerata libagione a base di pantera), rettili, anfibi e meduse urticanti, solo per fare qualche esempio. Tipico il suo modo di accogliere gli ospiti: con una galletta spalmata di polpa di topo in una mano e una tazza di tè fumante nell’altra. Si lagnò solo un paio di volte del proprio desinare, a proposito della consistenza eccessivamente stopposa della talpa e, in un’altra occasione, del cattivo sapore del moscone. Come avrete capito le storie sulle sue eccentricità, vere o romanzate che siano, non si contano.
A quanto si narra questo Casanova gastronomico non si sarebbe nemmeno limitato a sperimentare i gusti del regno animale. In seguito a una sua visita presso la Cattedrale di San Paolo, per esempio, venne fatta una scoperta sconcertante: un calice contenente il sangue di un martire cristiano fu ritrovato completamente vuoto, come se qualcuno ne avesse bevuto il sacro contenuto…
Il picco delle stranezze fu raggiunto allorché il lord venne introdotto a una mostra di preziosi cimeli. Quando si trovò davanti alla teca che conteneva il cuore di Luigi XIV non resistette all’impulso e, subito dopo aver pronunciato la fatidica frase: «Il cuore di un Re mi manca!», si avventò sull’organo imbalsamato e lo trangugiò in un sol boccone senza che gli accompagnatori avessero il tempo di bloccarlo.

Per quanto circonfusi da un evidente alone di leggenda, i disturbi alimentari di questi signori non vanno per forza letti come frutto di fantasia; benché molto rari, sono oggi noti nelle loro varianti cliniche denominate iperfagia (appetito ossessivo) e picacismo.

La macchina umana

Basata sulle splendide illustrazioni di Fritz Kahn, risalenti al 1927, che raffiguravano il corpo umano come una grande fabbrica industriale, questa animazione del 2009 ad opera di  Henning M. Lederer è davvero affascinante, e illustra ironicamente i principali sistemi (nervoso, respiratorio, circolatorio, digestivo) e come tutti siano correlati l’uno all’altro in un complesso equilibrio:

[youtube=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MmrDPXUlF2k&playnext_from=TL&videos=FwjEWCbRdfQ]

Scoperto su Dark Roasted Blend.