“We Were Amazed”: Anatomy Comes to Japan

Sep2

Imagine living in a country whose government decided to block any scientific discovery coming from abroad.
Even worse: imagine living in this hypothetical country, at the exact time when the most radical revolution of human knowledge in history is taking place in the world, a major transformation bound to change the way Man looks at the Universe — of which you ignore every detail, since they are prohibited by law.

This was probably a scientist’s nightmare in Japan during sakoku, the protectionist policy adopted by the Tokugawa shogunate. Enacted around 1640, officially to stop the advance of Christianity after the Shimabara rebellion, this line of severe restrictions was actually devised to control commerce: in particular, what the Shogun did was to deny access and trade above all to the Portuguese and the Spanish, who were considered dangerous because of their colonial and missionary ambitions in the New World.
China, Korea and the Netherlands were granted the opportunity of buying and selling. Being the only Europeans who could carry on trading, in the enclave of Dejima, the Dutch established with the Land of the Rising Sun an important economic and cultural relationship which lasted for more than two centuries, until the sakoku policy was terminated officially in 1866.

As we were saying, Japan ran the risk of being cut off from scientific progress, which had begun just a century before, in that fateful year of our Lord 1543 when Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium and Vesalius his Fabrica — two books which in one fell swoop dismantled everything that was believed was above and inside Man.
If the nightmare we previously mentioned never became true, it was because of the Rangaku movement, a group of researchers who set out to carefully study everything the Dutch brought to Japan.
Although for the first eighty years of “isolation” the majority of Western books were banned, ideas kept on circulating and little by little this quarantine of culture loosened up: the Japanese were allowed to translate some fundamental works on optics, chemistry, geography, mechanical and medical sciences.
In the first half of the XIX Century there were several Rangaku schools, translations of Western books were quite widespread and the interaction between japanese and foreign scientists was much more common.

Medical studies were recognized since the beginning as a field in which cultural exchange was essential.
In Japan at that time, physicians followed the Chinese tradition, based on religious/spiritual views of the body, where precise anatomical knowledge was not seen as necessary. Human dissections were prohibited, according to the principles of Confucianism, and those doctors who really wanted to know the inside of the human body had to infer any information by dissecting otters, dogs and monkeys.

The very first autopsy, on an executed criminal, took place in 1754 and was conducted by Yamawaki Tōyō. The dissection itself was carried out by an assistant, because it was still a taboo for higher classes to touch human remains.
All of a sudden, it appeared that the inside of a human body was much more similar to the Dutch illustrations than to those of traditional Chinese medicine books. The account of the autopsy signed by Yamawaki caused the uproar of the scientific community; in it, he strongly supported an empyrical approach, an unconceivable position at the time:

Theories may be overturned, but how can real material things deceive? When theories are esteemed over reality, even a man of great widsom cannot fail to err. When material things are investigated and theories are based on that, even a man of common intelligence can perform well.

(cit. in Bob T. Wakabayashi, Modern Japanese Thought)

In 1758, one of Yamawaki’s students, Kōan Kuriyama, conducted the second dissection in Japanese history, and was also the first physician to cut up a human body with his own hands, without resorting to an assistant.

Sugita Genpaku was another doctor who was shocked to find out that the illustrations of Western “barbarians” were more accurate than the usual Chinese diagrams. In his memoir Rangaku Koto Hajime (“Beginning of Dutch Studies”, 1869), he recounts the time when, together with other physicians, he dissected the body of a woman called Aochababa, hanged in Kyoto in the Kozukappara district (now Aeakawa) in 1771. Before starting the autopsy, they examined a Western anatomy book, the Ontleedkundige Tafelen by Johann Adam Kulmus:

Ryotaku opened the book and explained according to what he had learned in Nagasaki the various organs such as the lung called “long” in Dutch, the heart called “hart,” the stomach called “maag” and the spleen called “milt.” They looked so different from the pictures in the Chinese anatomical books that many of us felt rather dubious of their truths before we should actually observe the real organs. […] Comparing the things we saw with the pictures in the Dutch book Ryotaku and I had with us, we were amazed at their perfect agreement. There was no such divisions either as the six lobes and two auricles of the lungs or the three left lobes and two right lobes of the liver mentioned in old medical books. Also, the positions and the forms of the intestines and the stomach were very different from the traditional descriptions. [Even the bones] were nothing like those described in the old books, but were exactly as represented in the Dutch book. We were completely amazed.

(1771: Green Tea Hag, the beginning of Dutch Learning)

Genpaku spent the following three years translating the Dutch textbook. The task had to be carried out without any knowledge of the language, nor dictionaries available for consultation, by means of constant interpretations, deductions, and discussions with other doctors who had been in contact with the Europeans in Nagasaki. Genpaku’s colossal effort, similar to an actual decryption, was eventually published in 1774.
The Kaitai Shinsho was the first Japanese illustrated book of modern anatomy.

As Chinese traditional medicine gradually began to pale in comparison to the effectiveness and precision of knowledge coming from Europe, in Japan the practice of dissection became widespread.

This was the context for the real masterpiece of the time, the Kaibo Zonshishu (1819), a scroll containing 83 anatomical illustrations created by Doctor Yasukazu Minagaki.
Minagaki, born in Kyoto in 1785, attended public school and became a physician at a clinic in his hometown; but he also was a better and more gifted artist than his predecessors, so he decided to paint in a meticulous way the results of some forty autopsies he had witnessed. The scroll was part of a correspondence between Minagaki and the Dutch physician Philipp Franz von Siebold, who praised the admirable drawings of his Japanese collegue.

There are several online articles on the Kaibo Zonshishu, and almost all of them claim Minagaki was obviously distant from the classicist European iconography of the écorchés — those flayed models showing their guts while standing in plastic, Greek poses. The cadavers dissected here, on the other hand, are depicted with stark realism, blood trickling down their mouth, their faces distorted in a grimace of agony.

But this idea is not entirely correct.
Already since the XVI Century, in Europe, the écorchés paired with illustrations of an often troubling realism: one just needs to look at the dissection of the head by Johann Dryander, pre-Vesalian even, but very similar to the one by Minagaki, or at the cruel anatomical plates by Dutch artist Bidloo in his Anatomia Hvmani Corporis (1685), or again at the corpses of pregnant women by William Hunter, which caused some controversy in 1774.
These Western predecessors inspired Minagaki, like they had already influenced the Kaitai Shinsho. One clear example:

The representation of tendons in the Kaibo Zonshishu…

…was inspired by this plate from the Kaitai Shinsho, which in turn…

…was taken from this illustration by Govand Bidloo (Ontleding des menschelyken lichaams, Amsterdam, 1690).

Anyway, aside from aesthethic considerations, the Kaibo Zonshishu was probably the most accurate and vividly realistic autoptic compendium ever painted in the Edo period (so much so that it was declared a national treasure in 2003).

When finally the borders were open, thanks to the translation work and cultural diffusion operated by the Rangaku community, Japan was able to quickly keep pace with the rest of the world.
And to become, in less than a hundred years, one of the leading countries in cutting-edge technology.

____________

You can take a look at the Kaitai Shinsho here, and read the incredible story of its translation here. On this page you can find several other beautiful pics on the evolution of anatomical illustration in Japan.
(Thanks, Marco!)

Toshio Saeki

Aug12

Among all the artists adressing the liminal zones of obscenity and taboo, few have explored the Unheimliche in all its variations with Toshio Saeki’s precision.

Born in 1945 in Miyazaki prefecture, he moved to Osaka when he was 4 years old and then landed in Tokyo at 24, right when the sex industry was booming. After a few months in a publicity agency, Saeki decided to focus exclusively on adult illustration. His drawings were published on Heibon Punch and other magazines, and slowly gained international interest. Today, after 40 years of activity, Toshio Saeki is among the most praised japanese erotic artists, with solo exhibitions even outside Japan — in Paris, London, Tel Aviv, New York, San Francisco and Toronto.

For Saeki, art — like fantasy — cannot and should not know any limit.
In spite of the sulfurous nature of his drawings, he had surprisingly little trouble with censorship: apart from some “warning” notified by the police to the magazines featuring his plates, Saeki never experienced true pressions because of his work. And this is understandable if we take into account the cultural context, because his work, although modern, is deeply rooted in tradition.
As the critic Erick Gilbert put it, “if you look at Saeki’s art outside of its cultural sphere, you may be troubled by its violence. But once you go inside that cultural sphere, you know that this violence is well-understood, that ‘it’s only lines on paper,’ to quote cartoonist Robert Crumb. This extreme imagery of Japanese artists, and their characteristic need to go as far as possible, can be traced several centuries back to the so-called bloody ukiyo-e of the 19th century“.

To fully understand Toshio Saeki, it’s essential to look back to the muzan-e, a bloody subgenre of prints (ukiyo) which appeared around the half of ‘800, drawn by masters such as Tsukioka Yoshitoshi. This latter created the Twenty-eight famous murders with verse, in which he depicted all sorts of atrocities and violent deaths, taken from the news or from the stories of Kabuki theater. Here are some examples of Yoshitoshi’s extreme production.

Other muzan-e, often particularly cruel, were drawn by Utagawa Yoshiiku, Kawanabe Kyōsai, and more marginally Hokusai; this current would then influence the more recent generation of artists and mangaka interested in developing the themes of ero guro – eroticism contaminated by surreal, bizarre, grotesque and crooked elements. Among the contemporary most prominent figures, Shintaro Kago and the great (and hyper-violent) Suehiro Maruo stand out.
So our Toshio Saeki is in good company, as he mixes the solid tradition of muzan-e with classical figures of japanese demons, bringing to the surface the erotic tension already hidden in ancient plates, making it both explicit and obsessive.

His work is a visionary maelstrom in which sex and torture are inseparable, where erotic pulsion is intertwined with frenzy and psychopatology. The manic intensity of his illustrations, however, is coupled with a formal and stylish elegance, which cools down and crystallizes the nightmare: his prints are not created on the spot, because this precise refinement points to a deep study of the image.
“Often they are connected with nightmares I had as a child, or extreme fantasies of my youth. These images made an impression on me, and I exaggerate them until they become those works that seem to have such a stong impact on the viewer“, declared the artist. These visions are carefully considered by Saeki, before he puts them on paper. For this reason his work looks like some sort of cartography of the further limits of erotic fantasy, those fringes where desire ultimately transforms into cupio dissolvi and cupio dissolvere (the desire to be annihilated, and to annihilate).

But, for all their shocking power, Saeki’s paitings are always just dreams. “Leave other people to draw seemingly beautiful flowers that bloom within a nice, pleasant-looking scenery. I try instead to capture the vivid flowers that sometimes hide and sometimes grow within a shameless, immoral and horrifying dream. […] Let’s not forget that the images I draw are fictional“.

And, again: “The important thing, to me, is awakening the viewer’s sensitiviy. I don’t care if he is a bigot or not. I want to give him the sensation that in his life — basically a secure and ordinary existence — there might be “something wrong”. Then hopefully the observer could discover a part of himself he did not know was there”.

Quotes appearing in this post are taken from: here, here and here.
For a deeper treatise on muzan-e, here’s an article (in Italian) on the wonderful website Kainowska.

Robert E. Cornish

Dec28

Robert E. Cornish, classe 1903, era un bambino prodigio. Si laureò con lode all’Università della California a soli 18 anni, e conseguì il dottorato a 22. Eppure talvolta una mente brillante può smarrirsi all’inseguimento di sfide perse in partenza e di scommesse impossibili: di sicuro, pur con tutte le sue doti, il Dr. Cornish non eccelleva per lungimiranza.

Così, appena accettato un posto all’Istituto di Biologia Sperimentale presso l’Università, immediatamente si impelagò in una serie di ricerche che non avevano un futuro, come ad esempio un progetto per un paio di lenti che permettessero di leggere il giornale sott’acqua. (Se pensate – a ragione – che questa sia un’idea bislacca, date un’occhiata ai brevetti di cui abbiamo parlato in quest’articolo).

Nel 1932, a ventisette anni, Cornish cominciò ad essere ossessionato dall’idea di poter rianimare i cadaveri. Mise a punto una tavola basculante, una sorta di letto rotante fissato su un fulcro, su cui avrebbe dovuto essere legato il morto da riportare in vita. Ovviamente il decesso doveva essere accaduto da poco, e senza gravi danni agli organi interni: secondo le sue stesse parole, “facendolo muovere in su e in giù, mi aspetto una circolazione artificiale del sangue”.

Erano gli anni ’30, e non era più facile come un tempo procurarsi dei corpi freschi su cui sperimentare come facevano i “rianimatori di cadaveri” di una volta (vedi questo articolo), ma Cornish riuscì comunque a testare la sua tavola su vittime di attacchi cardiaci, morti per annegamento o folgorati. Purtroppo, nessuno di essi tornò in vita dopo essere stato sbatacchiato in alto e in basso. In un rapporto confidenziale per l’Università della California, Cornish segnalava che dopo un’ora passata a basculare il cadavere di un uomo “il suo volto sembrava essersi improvvisamente riscaldato, gli occhi erano tornati a brillare, e si potevano osservare delle deboli pulsazioni in prossimità della trachea”. Un po’ pochino per affermare che la tecnica fosse efficace.

Così Cornish decise che, prima di ritentare sugli uomini, sarebbe stato più saggio mettere a punto il suo metodo sugli animali. Nel 1934 iniziò gli esperimenti che gli avrebbero dato la fama e che, allo stesso tempo, avrebbero decretato la fine della sua carriera.

Le vittime sacrificali di queste nuove ricerche erano cinque fox terrier, chiamati (neanche troppo ironicamente) Lazarus I, II, III, IV e V. Per ucciderli, Cornish usò una miscela di azoto ed etere, asfissiandoli fino alla completa cessazione del respiro e del battito cardiaco. Dichiarati clinicamente morti, i cani venivano poi sottoposti alle tecniche sperimentali di rianimazione, che prevedevano – oltre al basculamento – delle iniezioni di adrenalina ed eparina (un anticoagulante), mentre Cornish aspirava dell’ossigeno da una cannuccia e lo soffiava nella bocca aperta del cane morto.

Lazarus I, II e III furono un buco nell’acqua, ostinandosi a rimanere deceduti. Ma ecco la sorpresa: nel 1934 e 1935, con Lazarus IV e V, qualcosa effettivamente successe. I cani ripresero conoscenza, e ritornarono a respirare e a vivere. Certo, i danni cerebrali che avevano subito erano irreparabili: i cani erano completamente ciechi e non riuscivano a stare in piedi da soli. Ma la stampa amplificò questo piccolo successo a dismisura, e in breve tempo Cornish acquistò la fama di novello Frankenstein, anche grazie al suo strabismo divergente che gli donava uno sguardo da vero e proprio scienziato pazzo.

Nel 1935 anche Hollywood cercò di far cassa sulla popolare vicenda, con la realizzazione del (pessimo) film Life Returns, ispirato alle ricerche di Cornish: quest’ultimo compare in una scena del film, nei panni di se stesso, mentre esegue dal vero uno dei suoi esperimenti di “rivitalizzazione” di un cane.

Forse Cornish pensava che l’esposizione mediatica gli avrebbe consentito maggiori fondi e più libertà di ricerca, ma accadde l’esatto opposto. Questi esperimenti erano un po’ troppo estremi, perfino per la sensibilità del tempo, e l’Università della California di fronte alle proteste degli animalisti decise di bandire Cornish dal campus, e tagliò tutti i ponti con lui.

Ritiratosi nella sua casa di Berkeley, Cornish mantenne un basso profilo per tredici anni. Ogni tanto doveva calmare l’ostilità dei vicini, per via delle fughe di pecore e cani dal suo laboratorio, o per varie esalazioni di componenti chimici che appestavano l’aria e scrostavano la vernice dagli edifici della zona. Ma nel 1947, eccolo ritornare sulla ribalta, affermando di aver finalmente perfezionato la tecnica, e dichiarandosi pronto a resuscitare un condannato a morte. L’audace impresa sarebbe stata tentata, questa volta, senza l’aiuto di tavole basculanti (concetto che aveva ormai completamente abbandonato), ma grazie ad una macchina cuore-polmoni assemblata in maniera artigianale e quantomeno fantasiosa: era composta dall’aspiratore di un aspirapolvere, dal tubo di un radiatore, da una ruota d’acciaio, da alcuni cilindri e da un tubo di vetro contenente 60.000 occhielli per lacci da scarpa.

Un detenuto del braccio della morte di San Quintino, Thomas McMonigle, condannato per l’omicidio di una ragazzina, si propose volontariamente come cavia – con l’intesa che, se anche l’esperimento fosse riuscito ed egli fosse sopravvissuto alla camera a gas grazie all’apparecchio di Cornish, sarebbe comunque rimasto in carcere.

Le autorità della California negarono però nettamente la richiesta di Cornish di poter sperimentare con il corpo del condannato a morte. Con quest’ultima sconfitta, la sua ricerca non aveva più alcuna possibilità di continuare. Ritiratosi nuovamente a vita privata, sbarcò il lunario vendendo un dentifricio di sua invenzione, il “Dentifricio del Dottor Cornish”, fino alla sua morte improvvisa nel 1963.

Valerio Carrubba

Oct30

Valerio Carrubba è nato nel 1975 a Siracusa. Le sue opere sono davvero uniche, e per più di una ragione.

Si tratta di dipinti surreali che ritraggono i soggetti sezionati e “aperti” come nelle tavole anatomiche, “cadaveri viventi” che espongono la propria natura fisica e l’interno dei corpi con iperrealismo di dettagli.

Ma la peculiare tecnica pittorica di Carrubba consiste nel dipingere ogni quadro due volte. Dapprima crea quello che molti degli spettatori più comuni definirebbero “il quadro vero”, vale a dire il disegno più definito, più pittorico, più dettagliato. Dopodiché l’artista vi dipinge sopra una seconda stesura, più “automatica”, che va a nascondere la versione precedente. Così facendo, crea un fantasma invisibile ai nostri occhi, nega e nasconde l’anima prima della sua opera, che rimane evidente solamente nella stratificazione dei colori (esaltata dall’utilizzo dell’acciaio inox come supporto).

“Ed è proprio la morte del “quadro vero”, ovvero sommamente, irrimediabilmente, ritualmente falso che Carrubba celebra; dipingendolo e poi, nella quiete del suo studio, uccidendolo e mostrandocene l’ectoplasma.” (Luigi Spagnol)

A simboleggiare questa morte del linguaggio espressivo, e la duplicità delle sue opere, i suoi quadri hanno tutti titoli palindromi (leggibili sia da destra che da sinistra).

Anatomie fantastiche

May10

Walmor Corrêa è un artista brasiliano che dipinge tavole anatomiche di esseri immaginari di sua invenzione. Le tavole, dagli splendidi colori, si rifanno alle vere illustrazioni dei libri di biologia, e spesso descrivono dettagliatamente l’anatomia interna di questi ibridi fantasiosi. Ondine, mostri, commistioni di umano e animale sono dipinti come fossero stati ritratti durante una dissezione. Accurate descrizioni etologiche rendono conto dei particolari comportamenti di questi animali. Corrêa ha anche creato diorami, orologi a cucù e carillon a partire da scheletri animali modificati. Se volete conoscere l’anatomia di una sirena, Corrêa è l’uomo giusto a cui chiederlo.